Appeals Court Tells Lower Court To Consider If Standards 'Incorporated Into Law' Are Fair Use; Could Have Done More

Carl Malamud published the law on his PublicResource.org website. And for that he got sued. The problem was, in posting the Code of Federal Regulations he also included the various enforceable standards included as part of those Regulations. This displeased the organizations which had developed those standards (SDOs) and who claimed a copyright in them. So they sued Public Resource for infringement, and in a terrible decision last year Public Resource lost. Public Resource then appealed, and this week Malamud's organization won a reversal of the district court decision.

The decision by the D.C. Circuit in American Society for Testing and Materials v. PublicResource.org stands as a win for those who would choose to republish the law, even when their doing so may involve republishing standards created by non-governmental SDOs that were then incorporated by reference into controlling law. Although one can never presume to read the tea leaves at oral argument, it did seem as though the court was extremely uncomfortable with the idea that someone could be punished for having published the law. But the particular way the court addressed the copyright and trademark claims brought against Public Resource for it having done so is still worth further discussion. Disclosure: I helped file an amicus brief on behalf of members of Congress supporting Public Resource's defense, and amicus briefs on behalf of law professors at the district court.

On the copyright front, it is important to first note how the court did NOT resolve the question of whether republishing standards incorporated into law constituted copyright infringement. A threshold question in any copyright infringement case is whether there's any copyright that could have been infringed at all, because no copyright = no infringement, and with no infringement the case goes away. One way there might not be a copyright is if employees of the federal government had worked on developing the standards, like the ones at issue in this case, since under § 105 of the copyright statute, works by federal government employees are ineligible for copyright protection. But in its decision the D.C. Circuit dismissed this argument, finding that Public Resource had effectively waived it at the district court below.

As an initial matter, PRO argues that there is a triable question as to whether the standards at issue here were ever validly copyrighted given the Act’s prohibition on copyrighting “work[s] of the United States Government,” 17 U.S.C. § 105, and the fact that government employees may have participated in drafting certain standards. PRO, however, failed to adequately present this claim to the district court and has thus forfeited it. [p. 14]

Another way there might not be copyright in the standards Public Resource published is that, by being published as a factual representation of what the law is, that factual nature would preclude there being a copyright in what was republished, since, per § 102(b) of the copyright statute, purely factual works are also not eligible for copyright protection. This consideration was kicked around by the judges during oral argument because it's a complicated issue with some interesting implications. First, there's the question of whether the standards themselves are too factual to be copyrighted, but for the sake of this case the court generally assumed they could be. But even if they are copyrightable, the next question is what happens when the standards have now become a factual representation of the law governing people's behavior? Does that incorporation cause them to lose their copyright? And what would it mean for SDOs and the development of future standards by third parties if that were the case?

The court, however, chose to avoid these questions. It gave several reasons for this avoidance, including that a ruling on the copyrightability of incorporated standards could have a significant economic effect on those SDOs, [p. 16], and also that it's generally considered better practice for courts to decide cases on grounds other than constitutional ones [p. 15]. (As Public Resource and amici pointed out, not being able to post the law for people governed by it to read raises significant First Amendment and due process concerns, which would mean that the question of if the law could be copy